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What is a likely reason so many lineages of tetrapods returned to the sea during the Mesozoic What might be an environmental reason behind the rise to dominance of the archosaurs during the Triassic How did the floral changes in the Cretaceous (the radiation of angiosperms) affect the fauna Several studies indicate a gradual decline in the rate of appearance of new species of dinosaurs toward the end of the Cretaceous antibiotic resistance controversy discount simpiox line. Extinction of fish-shaped marine reptiles associated with reduced evolutionary rates and global environmental volatility infection eye cheap simpiox 6 mg overnight delivery. End-Cretaceous extinction in Antarctica linked to both Deccan volcanism and meteorite impact via climate change treatment for dogs eating grapes generic simpiox 3mg with visa. The amniote egg may be a critical element of the success of synapsids and sauropsids because amniote eggs are larger than non-amniote eggs and produce larger hatchlings that grow into larger adults antibiotics for neonatal uti discount simpiox 12 mg mastercard. Early in their evolutionary history, amniotes split into the two evolutionary lineages that dominate terrestrial habitats today, Sauropsida and Synapsida. Extant sauropsids include turtles, lepidosaurs (tuatara, lizards, and snakes), crocodylians, and birds, whereas mammals are the only extant synapsids. Both lineages underwent extensive radiations in the late Paleozoic and late Mesozoic that included animals that are now extinct and have no modern equivalents; the dinosaurs and pterosaurs were sauropsids, and the pelycosaurs and therapsids were synapsids. By the mid-Carboniferous, the sauropsid and synapsid lineages had separated and amniotes had evolved few derived characters associated with terrestrial life. As a result, the sauropsid and synapsid lineages independently developed most of the derived characters necessary for terrestrial life, such as respiratory and excretory systems that conserve water and locomotor systems that are compatible with high rates of lung ventilation. Both lineages eventually developed fast-moving predators that could pursue fleeing prey, as well as fleetfooted prey that could run away from predators, and both lineages included species capable of powered flight. Both lineages had members that became endothermal, evolving high metabolic rates and insulation to retain metabolic heat in the body, and both lineages evolved extensive parental care and complex social behavior. Derived sauropsids (pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and birds) and derived synapsids (therapsids and mammals) both reduced the side-to-side bending of the rib cage by placing their legs more under the body (upright posture) and by relying more on movement of the legs than of the trunk. In both lineages, the ankles developed a hinged joint that could propel the body forward. Derived sauropsids became bipedal and retained expansion and contraction of the rib cage as the primary method of creating the pressure differences that move air into and out of the lungs. In contrast, derived synapsids remained quadrupedal and added a diaphragm to aid with lung ventilation. In many, perhaps most, extant sauropsids (birds, crocodylians, and some lizards), these functions are accomplished with a one-way flow of air through the lung (a through-flow lung), whereas synapsids retain the basic tetrapod condition of in-and-out airflow (a tidalflow lung). Sauropsids do this by having a waste product with low solubility (uric acid), kidneys that do not produce concentrated urine (some marine birds are an exception to that generalization), and glands that secrete salt. Synapsids excrete a highly soluble waste product (urea) through kidneys that can produce very concentrated urine, and they lack salt-secreting glands. These differences in structural and functional characters of sauropsids and synapsids show that there is more than one way to succeed as a terrestrial amniote vertebrate. As the vertebral column bends, the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases; pressure in both lungs rises (shown by +), pushing air at that point the supplies of high-energy phosphate out of the lungs (arrow). Early tetrapods moved with lateral developed modes of locomotion that allow them to hold the undulations of the trunk, as do most extant salamanders trunk rigid and use the limbs as a major source of propuland lizards. The axial muscles provide the power for this sion, but the ways they did this were quite different.

Seasonal reductions in body temperature form a continuum from species that have slightly lower body temperatures in winter than in summer while continuing their normal activities (seasonal hypothermia) antibiotic wash buy 12mg simpiox free shipping, through those that allow their body temperature to drop a few degrees and become inactive for hours (rest-phase hypothermia) z pack antibiotics for sinus infection cheap 6mg simpiox amex, to those that have profound reductions of body temperature that extend for weeks or months (hibernation) antibiotic for sinus infection and sore throat discount simpiox 6mg without prescription. In late summer and autumn antibiotics for dogs skin buy simpiox online now, red squirrels accumulate larders of conifer cones in tunnels and construct well-insulated nests. These behaviors, combined with seasonal hypothermia, keep the daily winter energy expenditures of red squirrels at summer levels. Energy cost of arousal Energy saved by hypothermia Normothermic New set set point point Time Metabolic rate increases. As an animal enters rest-phase hypothermia, a decrease in metabolic rate (green trace) precedes a fall in body temperature to a new set point (red trace). The metabolic rate during arousal briefly overshoots the resting rate, but the energy cost of arousal is less than the energy saved by the period of hypothermia. The normal thermoregulatory mechanisms-thermogenesis and insulation-balance heat gain and heat loss at this new level, saving energy because the temperature gradient between the animal and its environment is smaller. At the end of the period of hypothermia, an increase in metabolic rate and heat production initiates warming, and the metabolic rate rises briefly above the resting rate. This period of elevated metabolism is the energy cost of arousal, and it is small compared with the energy that was saved during the time the animal was hypothermic. Calculations indicate that even entering hypothermia and immediately arousing saves energy for a small bird or mammal. They do not have an energy supply to carry them far past sunrise, and chickadees are among the first birds to begin foraging in the morning. They also forage in weather so foul that other birds, which are not in such a precarious energy balance, remain on their roosts. The chickadees must reestablish their fat stores each day if they are to survive the next night. Metabolic rate and body temperature Migratory stopovers Another function of restphase hypothermia may be to speed the rebuilding of energy stores during migratory stopovers. The Old World garden warbler (Sylvia borin) and icterine warbler (Hippolais icterina) normally have daytime body temperatures near 39. Migrating Eurasian blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla) allow their body temperatures to fall from a daytime average of 42. Hibernation the deep hypothermia that occurs during hibernation is a comatose condition, much more profound than the deepest been reported in more than two dozen species of passerine birds. The chickadees rely primarily on fat stores they accumulate as they feed during the day to supply the energy needed to carry them through the following night. Thus, the energy available to them and the energy they use at night can be estimated by measuring the fat content of Figure 20. The black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) is one of the smallest birds that lives year-round in Canada and the northern United States, and is in precarious energy balance during the winter. Hibernation is nearly confined to mammals; at most only a handful of bird hibernate and hibernation has been demonstrated only for the common poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii). During hibernation, voluntary motor responses are reduced to sluggish postural changes, but some sensory perception of powerful auditory and tactile stimuli and environmental temperature changes is retained. Perhaps most dramatically, a hibernating animal can arouse spontaneously from this state using heat production by brown fat. Some endotherms can rewarm under their own power from the lowest levels of hibernation; others must warm passively with an increase in environmental temperature until some threshold is reached at which arousal starts. Heart rate is drastically reduced, and blood flow to peripheral tissues is virtually shut down, as is blood flow posterior to the diaphragm. Body size and hibernation the largest mammals that hibernate are marmots, which weigh about 5 kg, and deep hypothermia and body size are closely related.

In addition virus treatment 6mg simpiox for sale, chondrichthyans retain nitrogenous compounds that raise their internal osmotic concentrations bacteria organelle order simpiox 12 mg mastercard, and ketones are the primary metabolic substrates of their skeletal and cardiac muscles treatment for demodex dogs order simpiox mastercard. Both the fossil record and molecular dating techniques indicate that this division had occurred by the start of the Devonian antibiotic while pregnant simpiox 6mg free shipping. When fossils are considered, Holocephali can be seen to be part of a larger group that also includes paraselachians (extinct sharklike forms, paraphyletic with respect to holocephalans). Paleozoic chondrichthyan radiations Chondrichthyans probably exhibited their greatest diversity during the Paleozoic, both in terms of number of species and ecomorphological types. Most species were less than 50 cm long, and body forms included almost every shape known among extant fishes, from dorsoventrally flattened through fusiform to ribbonlike. As their name suggests (Greek para, "beside" or "near"), paraselachians looked like sharks; they had sharklike teeth, and their upper jaw was not fused to the cranium as in extant chimaeras. One of these forms was Helicoprion, a Triassic survivor, known for its bizarre, spiraling toothNote whorl Note I think Paleozoic holocephali Both holocephalans and parasela(Figure 6. There have been many weird and wonderful our art Original art If you chians first appeared in the Middle Devonian, although the is really fuzzy in places. Life 10E reconstructions of what Helicoprion would have looked likelook at Pough Vertebrate A few areas I had to leave blank. If better there seem to Morales Studio Sinauer Associates until the Late Carboniferous. The paraselachians (six orders) available I could clean examples are tooth whorl was contained entirely within the mouth. Another Paleozoic group was the menaspoids, heavily armored fishes with plates of dermal bone on their heads, almost like placoderms, and numerous paired spines projecting from the side of their mouths. The Mesozoic chondrichthyan radiation Members of the modern elasmobranch radiation, Neoselachii, first appeared in the Late Triassic (although molecular data would place the split between sharks and rays as Permian). Here we discuss those radiations of the stem members (none of which survived into the Cenozoic) of the extant lineages. Anterior piercing tooth Posterior crushing tooth (B) Elasmobranchs Xenacanths, freshwater eelAnal n Basals like stem elasmobranchs, survived until the end 50 mm Fin rays of the Triassic (possibly into the Jurassic), but the Radials Mesozoic elasmobranch radiations consisted priFigure 6. Hybodonts (Hybodontiformes) first appeared in the Late Devonian and flourished until the end of the Cretaceous epicercal or heterocercal (Greek heteros, "different"; kerkos, in both marine and freshwater environments. The value of the euselachian heterocercal tail lies a well-known genus of the Late Triassic through the Crein its flexibility and the control of shape made possible taceous (Figure 6. When it is undulated from been found, although many hybodonts were much smaller side to side, the fin twists so that the flexible lower lobe than this. This distribution of force Hybodonts were distinguished by a heterodont dentition produces forward and upward thrust that can lift a fish (different tooth shapes in different regions of the jaw). The from a resting position or counteract its tendency to sink anterior teeth had sharp cusps and may have been used for as it swims horizontally. The posterior Other morphological changes in euselachians included teeth were stout, blunt versions of the anterior teeth and the appearance of a complete set of haemal arches (arches may have crushed hard-bodied prey, such as crabs. Both more pointed dorsal-fin spines at the leading edge of the pairs of fins were supported on narrow stalks formed by dorsal fins. These spines were ornamented with ridges and three narrow, platelike basal cartilages that replaced the grooves and studded with barbs on the posterior surface, long series of basals seen in earlier elasmobranchs. Holocephali A few lineages of paraselachians, such as Along with changes in the paired fins, the caudal fin Helicoprion, survived into the Early Triassic. The survivors were mainly members of Chimaeriformes, with the modern families diverging in the Late dal fin shape so that the upper lobe was distinctively larger Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. This tailfin arrangement is known as Summary that persisted into the Mesozoic was the myriacanthids, some of which had small armored plates on their heads (modern chimaeras have none). During this time chondrichthyans were probably the most numerous and diverse types of fishes, although they were not yet playing the role of large marine predator that was the preserve of the arthrodire placoderms such as Dunkleosteus. The eel-like xenacanths may have been the apex predators in the freshwater realm, although they would have had competition from the bony fishes of the lineage that would give rise to tetrapods (tetrapodomorph fishes; see Chapter 7). By the Carboniferous, placoderms were extinct, and tetrapodomorph fishes were rare. Chondrichthyans diversified into this empty ecomorph space in both marine and freshwater environments, becoming even more diverse and numerous than in the Devonian. A rich array of fishes is known from the late Early Carboniferous Bear Gulch Limestone in Montana, which represents a shallow tropical marine bay. About one-third of these were holocephalans, one-fourth were elasmobranchs (some euselachians, but mostly more basal forms such as stethacanthids and a few iniopterygians), and the rest were paraselachians.

To determine the map distances accurately east infection buy generic simpiox 6mg, we must include all crossovers (both single and double) that take place between two genes virus alert lyrics buy simpiox with a visa. Recombinant progeny that possess a chromosome that underwent crossing over between the eye-color locus (st) and the bristle locus (ss) include the single cross+ / ss e st / ss+ e+) and overs (st + + / ss / e and the two double crossovers (st and st / ss+ / e); see Figure 7 antibiotic overview order discount simpiox on line. Chromosome 1 (X) Yellow body Scute bristles White eyes Facet eyes Echinus eyes Ruby eyes Crossveinless wings Cut wings Singed bristles Lozenge eyes Vermilion eyes Miniature wings Sable body Garnet eyes Forked bristles Bar eyes Fused veins Carnation eyes Bobbed hairs Chromosome 2 Net veins Aristaless antenna Star eyes Held-out wings Dumpy wings Clot eyes 19 infection 2 ice age 2 purchase simpiox american express. The map distance between the bristle locus (ss) and the body locus (e) is determined in the same manner. The recombinant progeny that possess a crossover between ss and e are the sin+ ss+ / e and st ss / e+ gle crossovers st st / ss / e+ and the double crossovers and + /. This map distance can be obtained by summing the map distances between st and ss and between ss and e (14. Interference and the coefficient of coincidence Map distances give us information not only about the distances 181 182 Chapter 7 that separate genes, but also about the proportions of recombinant and nonrecombinant gametes that will be produced in a cross. Theoretically, we should be able to calculate the proportion of double-recombinant gametes by using the multiplication rule of probability (see Chapter 3), which states that the probability of two independent events occurring together is calculated by multiplying the probabilities of the independent events. Applying this principle, we should find that the proportion (probability) of gametes with double crossovers between st and e is equal to the probability of recombination between st and ss multiplied by the probability of recombination between ss and e, or 0. Multiplying this probability by the total number of progeny gives us the expected number of double-crossover progeny from the cross: 0. Only 8 double crossovers-considerably fewer than the 13 expected-were observed in the progeny of the cross (see Figure 7. The calculation assumes that each crossover event is independent and that the occurrence of one crossover does not influence the occurrence of another. But crossovers are frequently not independent events: the occurrence of one crossover tends to inhibit additional crossovers in the same region of the chromosome, and so double crossovers are less frequent than expected. The degree to which one crossover interferes with additional crossovers in the same region is termed the interference. To calculate the interference, we first determine the coefficient of coincidence, which is the ratio of observed double crossovers to expected double crossovers: coefficient of coincidence = number of observed double crossovers x number of expected double crossovers For the loci that we mapped on the third chromosome of D. The interference is calculated as interference = 1 - coefficient of coincidence So the interference for our three-point cross is: interference = 1 - 0. When interference is complete and no double-crossover progeny are observed, the coefficient of coincidence is 0 and the interference is 1. Sometimes a crossover increases the probability of another crossover taking place nearby and we see more double-crossover progeny than expected. In this case, the coefficient of coincidence is greater than 1 and the interference is negative. The interference equals 1 - the coefficient of coincidence; it indicates the degree to which one crossover interferes with additional crossovers. Fewer double crossovers took place than expected on the basis of single-crossover frequencies. More double crossovers took place than expected on the basis of single-crossover frequencies. A crossover in one region interferes with additional crossovers in the same region. Write out the phenotypes and numbers of progeny produced in the three-point cross. The progeny phenotypes will be easier to interpret if you use allelic symbols for the traits (such as st+ e+ ss). Write out the genotypes of the original parents used to produce the triply heterozygous individual in the testcross and, if known, the arrangement (coupling or repulsion) of the alleles on their chromosomes. Determine which phenotypic classes among the progeny are the nonrecombinants and which are the double crossovers. The nonrecombinants will be the two most- Linkage, Recombination, and Eukaryotic Gene Mapping 183 common phenotypes; double crossovers will be the two least-common phenotypes.

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